JTICI Vol.3, Issue 2, No.3 pp.26 to 45, January 2016
The Degeneration Of Limboo Language And The Loss Of Their Oral Knowledge: With special reference to Sikkim
Abstract
The Limboo tribe is one of the oldest and indigenous racial groups inhabited in Sikkim belonging to the Mongloid race. The Limboo people are nature worshipers. They have a distinct language, culture, custom, traditions and strong belief in Mundhum (Oral Literature). It is one of the major spoken and written languages in Sikkim. The Limboo language “Yakthung Sappan” is among eleven languages as recognized by the State Government. The population of Limboo in Sikkim stands at 56650, among them only 34,292 Limboo people can speak their native language. So there has been gradual decline in the Limboo language speaking people, due to the influence of western language and culture in various educational institutions, the indigenous language has become quite unpopular. Documentation of Mundhum plays a vital role to keep the continuity of language and in its preservation. It is a known fact that the development and modernization has been responsible for the degeneration of the Limboo languages. Thus, Limboo language has been on decline and is in state of extinction if no such further steps are not taken for its protection and revivalism. This paper will try to analyze the factors responsible for less specialized or loss of the ability to function Limboo language. Firstly, the Genesis of Limboo language will be discussed. Secondly, the major causes that are responsible for relapse of the language and finally, the paper will focus on the present scenario and prospects of Limboo language in future.
Key word: Limboo Language, Dialect, Mundhum, Development and Modernization.
Bhim Bahadur Limboo is Resource Person, Dept. of Limboo Lit. Sikkim Govt. College, Gyalshing, Sikkim and can be reached at vhimtshong13@gmail.com
Introduction
Sikkim is one of the multi-lingual state and it lies towards north-eastern part of India and is spreading over an area of 7096 square kilometer with population of 610,577 (Census of India, 2011). Sikkim a multi-ethnic, multi-religion and multi-culture state possessing eleven languages viz. Limboo, Lepcha, Bhutia, Nepali, Tamang, Rai, Gurung, Manger, Sherpa, Newari and Sunuwar are recognized as an official language of the state. Among these eleven languages, Limboo Language is one of the major spoken and written language of Limboo tribe of Sikkim. It is also widely spoken in Darjeeling, Kalimpong, Doars, Assam and north-eastern States of India. Beside India, it is used in other part of the world such as Nepal, Bhutan, Hong Kong, Singapore, Myanmar, Brunei, Canada and UK. Limboo Language belongs to Tibeto Burman Language sub-family of Sino-Tibet language stock. The Limboos called it “Yakthung Sappan” and the script is called “Sirijunga Script”. They have separate dialect and literature unlike other tribes of Sikkim.
Mundhum (Oral literature) isone of the cornerstones of the Limboo tribe. It plays a vital role for acceleration of language. It consist of legends, folklores, prehistoric accounts, sermons and moral or philosophical exhortations in poetic language. It is the sources of inspiration, information and enlightenment for the Limboos and the way of their life, customs, rites and rituals.
Genesis of Limboo Language
The name Limbu is an exonym of uncertain origin. Limboos refer to themselves as Yakthungba, and their language as Yakthung Pan. It is one of the ancient language of Sikkim spoken by the Limboo tribe. It has its own unique evolution of Tibetan and Devanagari writing system. However, the fundamental root of this language has come up from its own four main dialects-Panchthare, Tamarkhole, Phedape and Chatthare. Among which Panchthare is most commonly spoken and used as lingua-franca by the Limboo for both communication and writing.
It is the standard dialect of the Limbu language, whereas Phedape is spoken and understood by most. As tracing detail of the Limboo Language, it has to be noted that the name of great king known as Sirijunga Hang, who hailed from Imbiri Yamdhangwa, Mapangbhe, Tammar Khola (Limbuwan country) was the grandson of Galijanga Hang. He was the King of the Limboos who lived during the 9 th century A.D. in Limbuwan country (present Nepal). He brought all the fragmented provinces into one nation under his control and ruled the nation for about 35 years (Chemjong, IS 1948).
After succeeding and consolidating of his kingdom, he took keen interest in educating Limboo Language and oral literature to the citizen of his country who were all illiterate and uncivilized. A visionary, wise and charitable who strived to bring education and bring about literary awakening. In order to eradicate such illiteracy he traveled to Lhasa in Tibet. He had many literary discourses with great scholars. He had an opportunity to meet and interact with great literary figures and scholars like Shanta Rakshit and Bimal Mitra, who were there from the Nalanda University (Subba, J. R. 2004).
When returning from Tibet to Limbuwan he got different forms and structure of script that are mixture of Tibetan and developed the Limboo script on the line of Tibetian script. He started teaching of language in Limboo script. Along with the language he taught the Mundhum and faith of Yuma religion. According to many historians , King Sirijunga invented the Limboo script which is known as “Sirijunga Script”. The script which was codified by him and was pronounced as “Aakaranta” or long sounding letters similar to the Tibetan alphabets like “ka”, “kha”, “ta”, “pa”, etc. The King Sirijunga Script consisted of 20 big letters and 10 small letters (half sounding letters). There are 30 letters comprising of both big and small letters (Subba, P. S. 2008).
After the demise of King Sirijunga, the script had almost disappeared for 800 years and it was brought into practice again by Tye-Ongsi Sirijunga Singhthebe.He rediscovered the almost disappeared Sirijunga script in 17 th century which have been slightly modified and consisted of 31 big letters and 11 small letters. Tye-Ongsi Sirijunga started to teach through this script to the Limboo citizens in Limbuwan.
Limboo Language in Sikkim
Along with his eight disciples, Tye-Ongsi Sirijunga came to Hee-Martam, West Sikkim, via Chewa-bhanjyang in 1740 and started to teach Limboo language and Mundhum among Limboo tribe (R. B. 1998). He gave several knowledge in the form of admonishment regarding awareness of community. Once Tye-Ongsi Sirijunga started teaching Limboo language and Mundhum in Sikkim that irritated Thangsang Lamas and they assassinated Tye-Ongsi at the confluence of Kalej Khola near Reshi Falls at Martam in 1741(Subba, J. R. 2002). It clearly showed the religious power politics of language which try to contest and defy the dominant Buddhist script and its way of practice.
However, during this short period, significant progress was made were, he was able to revive and modified Limboo script of King Sirijunga and taught the Limboos of West Sikkim. This is the first and foremost phase of Limboo script which has shown the seed of Limboo Language in Sikkim. About 173 years, the Limboo language was totally unused in Sikkim. It is perhaps that the most unfortunate part in the history of Limboo language development.
After the assassination of Tye-Ongsi Sirijunga, no one has carried out to teach the language till 19 th century. In an around 1914-15, late Lalshor Sendang (1840-1926) s/o Hangbir Sendang at the age of 75-76 years came to Thambong and Daramdin of west Sikkim. He taught Limboo language and mundhum in Sirijunga script. Although the Limboo language was not so flourished. There is no written fact, when did the “Aakaranta” form of letters came into its present “Akaranta” form.
Further, some of the Western Research Scholars such as W. Krippatrick (An Account of the Kingdom of Nepal, 1811, Reprint 1964), George Van Driem (A Grammar of Limbu, 1987), F. B. Hamilton (Essay on the Language, Literature, and Religion of Nepal and Tibet. New Delhi: Asian Educational services, 1819. Reprint 1971), A. C. Campbell (Note on the Limboos and other hill Tribes hitherto undescribed. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Part I, Vol. IX, and Notes on the Limboo alphabet of the Sikkim Himalaya, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Nos I to VII, Vol., Calcutta, 1840), B. H. Hodgson (Hodgson Manuscript Vol. 85. London: India Office Library and Records, 1846), H. W. R. Senior (A vocabulary of the Limbu language of eastern Nepal. Bibliotheca Himalayika, 1908), G. A. Grierson (Linguistic Survey of India, 1909), R. K. Sprigg (Limbu books in the Kiranti script, 1959 and Review of A Grammar of Limbu by George Van Driem: Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, LII(1), 1989), Michaelovsky, Boyd (Tibeto-Burman dental suffixes; Evidence from Limbu, 1985) and A. Weirdert (A Grammar of Limbu, New York and Amsterdam, 1998.) have made commendable contribution in preserving and documentation of Limboo language and script. In 1942, when Iman Singh Chemjong came in Sikkim as a teacher at Gyalshing School, he brought an enormous works for Limboo language development in Sikkim. In 1951, intellectuals likeIman Singh Limboo (Chemjong), Man Bahadur Limboo (Khamdhak) and Padam Singh Limboo (Muringla) from Gangtok, Sikkim, published Limboo Primary Book “Tum Yakthung Ningwabhu Sapla” and “Nisigekpa Sapla” and distributed to the Limboos of different part of Sikkim. This Primary Book has been the milestone for the development of Limboo language. Gradually, various Limboo books began to appear.
In 1968, the Chogyal Palden Thendup Namgyal approved Limboo language study as an optional subject in the schools of Sikkim and the Limboo students to study this language up to Class II as an optional subject. On 11 th March 1968, Itcha Purna Das Subba of Samdong was appointed as first Limboo language teacher in Sikkim under vide Memo no 36/62/990 Education.
Furthermore, other language teachers were also appointed in different school. It is one of a compulsory subject for the Limboo students in the schools of Sikkim up to Class V and started a formal education in 1975. In the end of year, Government of Sikkim appointed B. B. Subba (Muringla) as a Limboo Text Book Writer. Later, Chandra Subba (Mangyung) also appointed to assist B. B. Subba to prepare Limboo Language Textbooks.
In Sikkim, only after 1970s Limboo language marked its development and progress. There are different kinds of books like poetries, story books, magazines, novels, epics, plays, comics, captions, mundhum books, newspapers has been started to published. As per the amendment of Official Language Act, 1963 vide Sikkim official Language Act, 1977 (5 of 1977) on dated 17 th October, 1977 in 1981, Limboo Language also recognized as one of the Official Language vide Sikkim Gazette No. 6/LD/81 dated 31 st March, 1981.
The Government has recognized them for their further development, planning by implementing language Education Policies in the state. In the same year Central Board of Secondary Education introduced Limboo language as core subject up to Class IX and X, and in 1983, it was upgraded to Class XI in 1983 and Class XII in 1985. Since March 3 rd 1983, the All India Radio, Gangtok is broadcasting Limboo programme biweekly for 15 minutes and since 1997 onwards it has been a daily half an hour programme. Following the development prospective of language Shri B. B. Subbais the first to establish a Limboo script designing work in 1984.
Present scenario of Limboo language
The Limboo language is taught in different schools and colleges of Sikkim. In the year of 2000, the University Authorities of Under-graduate Council, North Bengal University has given authority to introduce Limboo as Major Indian Language (MIL/Compulsory Additional Language) of 50 marks in two Government Colleges namely Tadong and Namchi. In a meantime, the Limboo language was taught as an Elective Subject with total marks of 300 and Compulsory Regional Language of 100 marks under Sikkim University in 2008 onwards at par with other subjects like English and Nepali.
It became one of the major Honors Paper with total marks of 900 in Under Graduate Level under Sikkim University since 2012 in three Government Colleges namely Tadong, Namchi and Gyalshing of Sikkim. Further, the State Government, intellectuals and Resource Persons being trying to implement Limboo Language as one of major subject in the Post Graduate level by 2016. In previous year, five batches of Limboo students passed out from three Government Colleges of Sikkim. Out of which four batches passed out with Elective paper and one batch passed out Honors paper in 2015. At present, there are 61 Limboo students in Tadong, 75 students in Namchi and 79 students in Gyalshing College. There are 215 Limboo students who opted Honors paper in Undergraduate level of Limboo subject in Sikkim.
The Limboo language both in the field of literature and academic is remarkable. In 1970s more than 17 story books, 30 poetry books, 6 essay composition books, 15 novels, 12 semi-epics, 12 epics based on Limboo Myth, 4 Limboo Dictionaries, 10 captions, 5comics and 1 satire, and more than 71 Limboo literary magazines are published. A part from that above mentioned publications more than 12 audio-visual and 50 Limboo audio CDs are released and 3 newspapers in Limboo language are published.
As a language, Limboo tribe used Sirijunga Script for writing and reading purposes. Both the narrative and non-narrative form of publications are produced on regular basis in the language. The narrative includes lyrics, plays, songs, short stories, novel, etc. Newspapers, magazines, periodicals are also produced in the language. The non-narratives include prose for different educational level (elementary, secondary, graduate) where subjects like English, Nepali and Hindi have been covered.
Besides, the composition of academic writings, the creative prose writing is also available in the language. It is also used in Religion for invoking the God and Deities, teaching and ritualistic observation. The cultural programme in the language are both broadcasted and telecasted. The films, documentary, audio visual are produced in regular interval in the language. The Limboo language is a medium of exchange of local administration (Municipality, village).
Mundhum (Oral Literature) as a source of language
Mundhum is a legend, a folktale, prehistoric accounts, sermons and moral or philosophical exertion in poetic language. It is a scripture living in oral tradition. It devotes a Limboo religion and literature (Weidert, A. & Subba, B. 1986); and the power of great strength (Chemjong, I. S. 2003. Edition-IV).Itis crucial soul for the Limboo tribe in their lively practices and it take to be a true, holy and powerful narratives. The Mundhum for each tribe consists of customs, habits, rituals, traditions, and myths passed down from the Limboo tribe’s ancestors.Itis basically as an oral Limboo literature is an important source of information of the prehistoric era. A number of stories and episodes are available in Mundhum Philosophy to strengthen the belief system on life. Unanimously Limboo have a long tradition of narrating or reciting Mundhum and performing rituals and observing ceremonies in their own distinctive ways.
It is the only major source of Limboo tribe where there is wide elaboration of creation of universe, earth, creatures, fire, great light, water, wind, human being, etc. through Limboo language in a rhetorically poetic song. Thus it becomes significant to keep the continuity of language and in its preservation. The Limboo priest like Phejiri Phedangma, Sambokko Samba, Yehilli Yeba/ma and Tuttugen Tumyehang are the interior source of the Mundhum.
The tribal people believe that the classical language which is used in Mundhum is a language of God and Goddesses. It is quite difficult to translate it by the common people. It is used by the Limboo shamans and most learned people in the society. The educated people who have knowledge in Limboo language can mix with the common language or colloquial language in writing as well as during the conversation. The colloquial language is common to all the Limboos of the world.
Major factors of declining Limboo language
Some of the factors responsible for degeneration of Limboo language are firstly, Limboo language and literature has been less practiced in Sikkim since the last seventeenth century. Although there was no literary survey done so far in Limboo language and literature that it laid inadequate documentation for the building of the Limboo literature theory. In fact, the literary theory in a strict sense is the systematic study of the nature of literature and of the methods for analyzing literature.
On the other hand, it is very difficult to define the circumstances of Limboo language and literature at the age between two great legend of Limboo namely Sirijunga Hang and Tye-Ongsi Sirijunga. It was about 800 year’s lapses of Limboo language between these two great legends, however, it was not lost totally. The language was not appropriately used in those lapses period. Again after the assassination of Tye-Ongsi Sirijunga, the language was degraded about 173 years till 1914-15 and it was revived by late Lalshor Sendang who came to Sikkim. There was no written account of language within this period.
Secondly, almost 333 years rule of Namgyal Dynasty, the domination of Tibetan language was quite popular in Sikkim. No other regional languages were given autonomy to develop on their own. The use of Limboolanguage and alphabets was banned and the possession of Limboo writings outlawed in Sikkim during Namgyal dynasty. There were no specific laws about it, but the Security Act was enforced for such cases under the strong directives of monarchy. In fact, the Limboo language was band from its root since the Namgyal Dynasty. The impact of displacement of language is now on the present scenario of Limboo language and literature.
Thirdly, the Limboo language also remains outside the Eight Schedule of the Indian constitution. At present, the demands have made for inclusion of Limboo language in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India. As per the provision for inclusion of language to the Eight Schedule, the committee, however, no time frame can be fixed for consideration of the demands for inclusion of Limboo language in Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India.
Fourthly, in Sikkim, as per the state education policy, the English language is kept as first language and other indigenous language like Limboo is recognized as second language. The influence of first language plays a vital role to deteriorate second language. Day to day use of more commonly spoken languages dominated the less commonly spoken languages and therefore, the less commonly spoken Limboo languages leading verge of extinction.
Fifthly, language is used as a medium of exchanging knowledge on various purposes like Radios, FMs, TV Channels, advertisements, posters, journals, local dailies, industrial and business sectors, in different educational institutions and is responsible for the powerful influential factors in consolidation of the speakers towards English and Hindi language used in the said field. Even these languages are used in E-system (Mobile, Internet, Wireless Telegraph, etc.) and have greatly benefited to expose these languages.
In which there is no Unicode characters in Limboo language that also severely cripplesthe language to remainstagnant. In other circumstances, the Limboos are one of the autonomous tribe called as “Tshong” in Sikkim which has been entitled by King Namgyal, but in present day it is included in Nepali community. Henceforth, the language lost its speakers. In such a situation, the indigenous/second language like Limboo in Sikkim has many probabilities of reduction.
Sixthly, Inter-Intra migration of Limboo tribe between the states and within the state. Most of the unemployed Limboo people moved from rural to urban areas for seeking government job and some other migrated to city and towns for higher studies, eventually they left speaking their native language. As such, if someone is recruited in force and is posted outside the home place, it automatically change their life style and language. Another factor is economic dominance negatively affects minority languages like Limboo when poverty leads people to migrate towards the cities or to other countries, thus dispersing the speakers of language.
Seventhly, inter caste marriage is another factors that diminished the use of Limboo language. If a Limboo girl or a boy marries outside the community, their offspring follow the next language instead of Limboo language. In such a situation, there are some chances of diminishing Limboo language.
Eighthly, the huge numbers of native speaker of a particular language can survive for a long time. In case, if it is inverse, the language would be in danger of extinction. Language loss occurs when the language has no more native speakers, and becomes a dead language. If eventually no one speaks the language at all, it becomes an extinct language. Although languages have always become extinct throughout human history, they are currently disappearing at an accelerated rate due to the processes of globalization, where the economically powerful languages dominate other languages. In future, the case has arisen in Limboo tribe with falling of its speaker day by day.
There are numerous efforts made and steps are taken to preserve Limboo language by the NGOs and the state government’s language policies, there is still dread that the indigenous language like Limboo of Sikkim would be endangered in the days to come. Here one can compare the Limboo speakers’ situation from the year 1951-2001.
Comparison of Limboo speakers from the year 2051-2001
|
Sl. No. |
Year |
Limboo Speakers |
Differences |
|
1 |
1951 |
15491 |
15491 |
|
2 |
1961 |
6212* |
-9279 |
|
3 |
1971 |
** |
– |
|
4 |
1981 |
17922 |
– |
|
5 |
1991 |
28174 |
10252 |
|
6 |
2001 |
34292 |
6118 |
Source: Khamdhak, B. L. Limboo Language in the present context of Sikkim: A Brief Profile (Seminar paper)
Note: * shows both the Limboo and Subba speakers.
**Non availability of Data of Limboo speakers.
As shown in the table above, in 1951 the total number of Limboo speakers in Sikkim were recorded to be 15491. Following the year 1961 the speakers declined to 6212 with the variation of 9279 in previous year. In 1971, there was no speakers were recorded in this account. While in 1981, the Limboo speakers were 17922, followed by the year 1991, 28174 with the increase of 10252 and in 2001 with the increase of 6118. With keeping in view that the increase of each decadal speakers were not in ascended order in between two year i.e., 1981to 2001.
Finally, Limboos are based on Mundhum. They believed it to be true, holy and religious oral knowledge, which is recited and chanted by the Limboo priests; Phedangmas, Sambas and Yebas or Yemas on certain religious and ritual functions and ceremonies. Once it starts to be chanted, it continues like blowing wind from the mouth of priest. When the priest starts to recite, he elaborate the creation of universe, God, Goddesses, deities and divinities, human being, etc. in a command of language in a rhythmic and poetic manner.
In a present situation the oral literature like Mundhum has diminished day by day. It is soon vanishing because the Mundhum of Limboo tribe has not been found in written usage of books. Only a few number of Mundhum books are published which could not be efficient. It was possessed in mouth to mouth solitarily as it is an unwritten one, it could not be preserved in detail. This might wipe out its purity. Almighty God blesses the Limboo priest only to recite mythos in very fabulous way of Mundhum. However, the negligence and ignorance of Limboo priest the Mundhum has become extinct. They refuse to share oral knowledge to common people.
Now-a-days, no one is interested to become a priest even he is gifted in Limboo community. In a pace of time, the young generation could not concentrate more on oral knowledge (Mundhum) due to its lengthiness and time consumption. In the present day most of the Limboo tribes have less practices of offering worship and using priest, in such a situation, the recitation and elaboration of oral tradition (Mundhum) has vanished along with its details.
Conclusion
Limboo language is one of the ancient language used by the Limboo tribe in Sikkim and around the world. The root expression of Limboo language is its dialects. The Limboos call it Yakthung Sappan. It can be read and written using Sirijunga script. It was near about 1000 years that the Limboo language remain inactive and unused since it was codified Limboo script by King Sirijunga at the end of 9 th century in Limbuwan. The Limboo language was started in Sikkim since 1951 by the intellectuals like Iman Singh Chemjong, Man Bahadur Limboo (Khamdhak) and Padam Singh Subba (Muringla). The contribution of this great work has to be credited to Tye-Ongsi Sirijunga, who martyred for revival and dissemination of Limboo language in Sikkim in 1741.
The Limboo language and literature, needs the literary survey to cope up for its development and to study and review of relevant literary materials. As to keep the historical account of the Limboo language and literature, the linguistics must analyze the different phases of literature. In a language there is no study of literary theory, by which we attempt to understand literature. Apart from this, either Sikkim Akademi or department should have Linguistic Institute for Research for conducting research on indigenous language like Limboo.
The Research Centre would facilitateconduct language research projects on various language problems especially the Limboo language.Depending on the well equipped with modern technological equipments, man powers and sound finance.
By the latter half of seventies, the movement for the education in Limboo language in Sikkim took a new turn after the Government’s approved of it. It is being experienced that the Limboo language has occupied an apartment of a state language in Sikkim in 1981. In the state of Sikkim, the government has also taken initiatives in preserving and reviving the language of Limboo. The state government made an effort to bring Limboo language alive by implementing education policies, the different Limboo NGOs played a vital role to promote and preserve the language by organizing different aspects of literary programme, seminar, debate, cultural programme in district and state level as well.
In connection to the Limboo language, the Mundhum (oral literature) is source of inspiration, information and enlightenment for the Limboos . It is a source of Limboo language and literature, culture and traditions. So, it is important for the Limboos to rediscover their Mundhum and its ethnic way of living. If it dies, the language and literature of Limboo tribe has chances of getting extinct in the near future.
Some of the remedies for Mundhums are to be learned by every phase of life. Every episodes of Mundhum must be kept in account through recording, documenting, interviewing and in the form of published books. The Mundhum teaching should be included in academic curriculum. It needs to be institutionalized to large extent. There is a need of separate Institution to be established for teaching and learning of Mundhum for the Limboo priest as well as common people for its development, promotion and conservation. The community itself, society and associations should play a vital and most importantly honest role rather mobilizing tribal people for vested political interest, then only they would be able to makepeople aware of their right to practice and preserve the Limboolanguage, faith and belief and keep themunited.
References
The landmass lying on the Eastern or left bank of the Arun river and extending from it to Tista River is the Limbuwana or the country of the Limboos, a tribe of the Himalayas “Oldfield, 1858”. The Land of Limboos, Limbuwan spans from Arun River in eastern Nepal to the Western parts of Sikkim, flanking both sides of the Kanchendzonga.
Unlike the most of other Brahmic scripts, it does not have separate independent vowel characters, instead using a vowel carrier letter with the appropriate dependent vowel attached.
The descendant Yongjunga and others could not carry forward the linguistic work. Consequently, the Sirijunga script became unused.
It was believed that Tye-Ongsi Sirijunga was the reincarnation of King Sirijunga. He was the son of Isirihang Singthebe who was born on the full moon day of Mangshir Purnima in 1704 A. D. at Tellok Sinam Pangbhe, Yangwarok Thum in Limbuwan.
The flourishment of Namgyal dynasty in the state of Sikkim was paved by the Blood brotherhood Treaty between Lepcha and the Bhutias and the Lho-Mon-Tshong treaty i.e. between the Lhopas (Bhutia in the form of father), the Monpas (the Lepchas in the form of mother) and the Tshong (The Limboos in the form of son) which integrated tribal population living in Sikkim of Lepchas and Limboos to come under the one leadership of Buddhist spiritual ruler in the form of Chogyal.
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